Hazing Lawsuits in Texas: A Comprehensive Guide for Iowa Colony Families
If Your Child Was Hazed at a Texas University, You’re Not Alone
For parents in Iowa Colony and across Brazoria County, sending your child to college represents both tremendous pride and natural worry. You’ve supported them through high school at Iowa Colony High School, watched them excel in our community, and trusted them to the care of Texas universities. But what happens when that trust is broken by the very organizations promising brotherhood, sisterhood, and tradition?
Right now, just an hour north of our community in Brazoria County, a case unfolding at the University of Houston demonstrates exactly how dangerous campus hazing has become. In late 2025, Leonel Bermudez—a transfer student who had accepted a bid to join the Pi Kappa Phi fraternity’s Beta Nu chapter—filed a $10 million hazing and abuse lawsuit after suffering rhabdomyolysis (severe skeletal muscle breakdown) and acute kidney failure. His urine turned brown, he couldn’t stand without help, and he required four days of hospitalization with critically elevated creatine kinase levels confirming acute kidney injury.
According to the Click2Houston report on UH Pi Kappa Phi hazing case, Bermudez was subjected to systematic abuse that included:
- A “pledge fanny pack” rule requiring him to carry condoms, a sex toy, nicotine devices, and other humiliating items 24/7
- Extreme physical hazing including sprints, bear crawls, wheelbarrow races, and “save-your-brother” drills
- Cold-weather exposure in underwear and lying in vomit-soaked grass
- Being sprayed in the face with a hose “similar to waterboarding” with threats of actual waterboarding
- Forced consumption of milk, hot dogs, and peppercorns until vomiting, followed immediately by sprints
- The November 3 “workout” where he was forced to complete 100+ push-ups and 500 squats under threat of expulsion
The ABC13 coverage of Leonel Bermudez’s UH hazing lawsuit details how another pledge was hog-tied face-down on a table with an object in his mouth for over an hour. The chapter was suspended on November 6, 2025, and members voted to surrender their charter on November 14—but only after Bermudez was hospitalized and our firm filed suit on his behalf.
This isn’t just a Houston problem. It’s a Texas problem that affects families throughout Brazoria County, including right here in Iowa Colony. When your child attends Texas A&M, UT Austin, Baylor, or any Texas campus, they enter an ecosystem with more than 1,423 Greek organizations operating across 25 Texas metros. Our firm maintains what we call the Texas Hazing Intelligence Engine—a proprietary database tracking every IRS-registered fraternity, sorority, and Greek organization in Texas, complete with EINs, legal names, and mailing addresses. We know who these organizations are, where they operate, and how to hold them accountable.
Understanding Hazing in 2025: Beyond the Stereotypes
For Iowa Colony families, recognizing modern hazing requires looking beyond dated stereotypes. Today’s hazing isn’t just about “boys will be boys” pranks—it’s systematic abuse that often includes:
Digital Coercion and Control
- 24/7 group chat monitoring with immediate response demands
- Geo-tracking through Find My Friends or Snapchat Maps
- Social media policing and forced content creation
- Digital humiliation via TikTok challenges or Instagram story dares
Disguised as “Wellness” or “Team Building”
- Extreme workouts framed as “fitness challenges”
- Sleep deprivation called “bonding nights”
- Forced consumption rituals labeled “nutrition education”
- Psychological abuse disguised as “character building”
Retreat-Based Hazing to Avoid Detection
- Moving dangerous activities to Airbnbs or rural properties
- “Big/Little reveal” weekends at off-campus locations
- Traditional hazing rituals during “brotherhood retreats”
Texas law under Education Code Chapter 37 defines hazing broadly as any intentional, knowing, or reckless act that endangers mental or physical health for purposes of initiation or affiliation. Consent is not a defense. Location doesn’t matter—whether it happens at the Pi Kappa Phi house at UH, a Culmore Drive residence in Houston, or Yellowstone Boulevard Park where Bermudez was abused, it’s still hazing.
The Texas Legal Framework: What Iowa Colony Families Need to Know
Criminal vs. Civil Liability
When hazing occurs in Texas, multiple legal avenues exist:
Criminal Prosecution
- Class B misdemeanor for basic hazing (up to 180 days jail, $2,000 fine)
- Class A misdemeanor if hazing causes injury requiring medical treatment
- State jail felony if hazing causes serious bodily injury or death
- Additional charges for failing to report hazing or retaliating against reporters
Civil Lawsuits
- Wrongful death claims for families who have lost children
- Personal injury claims for medical expenses, pain and suffering, emotional distress
- Negligence claims against universities for failing to protect students
- Negligent supervision claims against national fraternities/sororities
Texas-Specific Protections
Texas Education Code § 37.155 explicitly states that consent is not a defense to hazing. This is crucial for Iowa Colony families to understand—even if your child “agreed” to participate, the power imbalance, peer pressure, and fear of exclusion mean courts recognize this isn’t true voluntary consent.
Good-faith reporter immunity under § 37.154 protects students who call for help. Many universities, including those our Iowa Colony students attend, have medical amnesty policies encouraging emergency calls without alcohol/drug penalties.
Federal Overlay: The Stop Campus Hazing Act
The 2024 Stop Campus Hazing Act requires colleges receiving federal aid to:
- Report hazing incidents more transparently
- Strengthen hazing education and prevention programs
- Maintain public hazing data by 2026
- This builds on existing Title IX obligations for gender-based harassment and Clery Act crime reporting
Where Iowa Colony Students Face Hazing Risks
University of Houston (45 miles from Iowa Colony)
For Iowa Colony families with students at UH, the Bermudez case demonstrates serious risks. UH hosts active Greek life with:
- 17 Interfraternity Council chapters including Pi Kappa Phi, Sigma Alpha Epsilon, Sigma Chi
- 6 Panhellenic sororities including Chi Omega, Delta Gamma, Zeta Tau Alpha
- National Pan-Hellenic Council (Divine Nine) organizations
- Multicultural Greek Council groups
UH’s hazing policy prohibits forced consumption, sleep deprivation, and physical mistreatment both on and off campus. Yet the Pi Kappa Phi case shows enforcement gaps. When hazing occurs at UH, cases may involve UHPD, Houston Police Department, and civil suits in Harris County courts.
Texas A&M University (90 miles from Iowa Colony)
Many Iowa Colony students attend Texas A&M, where unique risks exist in both Greek life and the Corps of Cadets:
Greek Life Incidents
- Sigma Alpha Epsilon chemical burns case (2021): Pledges allegedly covered in industrial-strength cleaner causing severe burns requiring skin grafts
- Multiple fraternity suspensions for alcohol hazing and physical abuse
Corps of Cadets Traditions
- 2023 lawsuit alleging cadet was bound between beds in “roasted pig” position with apple in mouth
- Simulated sexual acts and degrading treatment during initiation
- Traditional practices that cross into hazing territory
Texas A&M handles cases through Student Conduct and Corps regulations, but civil lawsuits often reveal deeper institutional knowledge of dangerous traditions.
Other Major Texas Campuses
University of Texas at Austin maintains a public Hazing Violations page showing repeated sanctions against organizations including Pi Kappa Alpha (forced milk consumption and calisthenics) and spirit groups like Texas Wranglers.
Southern Methodist University as a private institution has less public transparency but has suspended chapters like Kappa Alpha Order (2017) for paddling and forced drinking.
Baylor University’s 2020 baseball hazing incident resulted in 14 player suspensions, demonstrating athletic program risks alongside Greek life concerns.
The Texas Hazing Intelligence Engine: How We Track Accountability
For Iowa Colony families, understanding who can be held responsible requires knowing the organizational landscape. Our firm maintains comprehensive data on Texas Greek organizations:
Public Records Directory: Fraternities and Sororities Serving Texas Families
IRS B83-Backbone Organizations (Sample)
- Pi Kappa Alpha Fraternity, EIN 746064445, Nederland TX 77627 (IRS B83 filing)
- Sigma Gamma Rho Sorority, EIN 364091267, Waco TX 76710 (IRS B83 filing)
- Texas Kappa Sigma Educational Foundation Inc, EIN 741380362, Fort Worth TX 76147 (IRS B83 filing)
- Beta Upsilon Chi, EIN 742911848, Fort Worth TX 76244 (IRS B83 filing)
- Honor Society of Phi Kappa Phi, EIN 263170920, Denton TX 76204 (IRS B83 filing)
- Alpha Sigma Phi Fraternity Inc, EIN 475370943, Houston TX 77204 (IRS B83 filing)
- Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity, EIN 237279532, Prairie View TX 77446 (IRS B83 filing)
- Chi Omega Fraternity, EIN 740555581, Austin TX 78705 (IRS B83 filing)
- Sigma Chi Fraternity Epsilon Xi Chapter, EIN 746084905, Houston TX 77204 (IRS B83 filing)
- Phi Delta Theta Fraternity, EIN 900927378, San Antonio TX 78249 (IRS B83 filing)
Houston-The Woodlands-Sugar Land Metro (188 Greek Organizations)
- Texas District of Pi Kappa Alpha Fraternity, Houston TX (Cause IQ metro listing)
- Alpha Phi Omega – Bayou City Alumni, Houston TX (Cause IQ metro listing)
- Delta Sigma Theta Sorority – Houston Alumnae, Houston TX (Cause IQ metro listing)
- Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority – Alpha Kappa Omega, Houston TX (Cause IQ metro listing)
- Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity – Eta Rho Sigma, Houston TX (Cause IQ metro listing)
Cross-Validated Brands (IRS + Cause IQ Matches)
- Beta Upsilon Chi appears in both IRS data (EIN 742911848) and Cause IQ metro listings
- Sigma Gamma Rho appears in IRS data and multiple Cause IQ metro chapters
- Pi Kappa Alpha appears in IRS data and Cause IQ’s Texas District listing
This data matters because when hazing occurs, liability extends beyond individual students to:
- Individual members who planned or participated
- Chapter officers who knew or should have known
- Local chapter organizations (if incorporated)
- National headquarters that set policies and collect dues
- Housing corporations that own properties
- Alumni organizations that fund and advise
- Universities that recognize and sponsor groups
National Patterns That Predict Texas Outcomes
The Bermudez case follows patterns seen nationwide:
Alcohol Poisoning Deaths
- Stone Foltz, Bowling Green State University, Pi Kappa Alpha (2021): $10M settlement
- Timothy Piazza, Penn State, Beta Theta Pi (2017): Dozens of criminal convictions
- Max Gruver, LSU, Phi Delta Theta (2017): $6.1M verdict, Louisiana’s Max Gruver Act
- Andrew Coffey, Florida State, Pi Kappa Phi (2017): Chapter closure, policy reforms
Physical and Ritualized Hazing
- Chun “Michael” Deng, Baruch College, Pi Delta Psi (2013): National fraternity criminally convicted
- Danny Santulli, University of Missouri, Phi Gamma Delta (2021): Permanent brain damage, multi-defendant settlements
Athletic Program Hazing
- Northwestern University football (2023-2025): Multiple lawsuits, coaching changes, confidential settlements
- Baylor baseball (2020): 14 player suspensions for hazing violations
These cases establish precedents that help Iowa Colony families. When national organizations like Pi Kappa Phi (involved in both the Coffey death and Bermudez injury) show repeated patterns, courts recognize foreseeability. When universities receive prior warnings and fail to act, they face negligent supervision claims.
Practical Guide for Iowa Colony Parents
Warning Signs Your Student May Be Being Hazed
Physical Indicators
- Unexplained bruises, burns, or injuries with inconsistent explanations
- Extreme fatigue beyond normal college stress
- Weight changes from food/water restriction
- Sleep deprivation (constant late nights, 3 AM calls)
- Chemical burns, rashes, or skin damage
- Signs of alcohol poisoning even if your child doesn’t normally drink
Behavioral Changes
- Sudden secrecy about organization activities
- Withdrawal from family, non-Greek friends
- Personality shifts: anxiety, depression, irritability
- Defensiveness when asked about the group
- Fear of “getting the chapter in trouble”
- Obsession with pleasing older members
- Talking about “just getting through this”
Academic Red Flags
- Grades dropping suddenly
- Missing classes or sleeping through them
- Skipping exams for “mandatory” events
- Losing scholarships or academic standing
Immediate 48-Hour Action Plan
Hours 1-6 (Crisis Response)
- If injured or intoxicated: Get to ER immediately
- Safety first: Remove from dangerous situation
- Evidence preservation: Screenshot messages shown, photograph injuries
- Documentation: Write down everything they tell you (who, what, when, where)
- Legal guidance: Call Attorney911 at 1-888-ATTY-911 for immediate advice
Hours 6-24 (Evidence Preservation)
- Digital evidence: Help preserve all group chats, texts, social media (do NOT delete)
- Physical evidence: Secure clothing, receipts, objects used in hazing
- Medical records: Request copies of all ER/hospital documentation
- Witness list: Record names and contact info for other pledges, bystanders
- University communications: Note any contacts from school but don’t respond yet
Hours 24-48 (Strategic Decisions)
- Legal consultation: Speak with experienced hazing attorneys
- Reporting decisions: With lawyer’s guidance, decide on campus/law enforcement reporting
- University response: Refer school contacts to your attorney
- Insurance contact: Do NOT speak to insurance adjusters without counsel
- Evidence backup: Upload all screenshots and photos to cloud storage
Critical Mistakes That Can Destroy Your Case
- Letting evidence be deleted: “Cleaning up” group chats looks like obstruction
- Confronting the organization directly: Triggers evidence destruction and witness coaching
- Signing university “resolution” forms: Often includes liability waivers
- Posting details on social media: Defense attorneys screenshot everything
- Returning for “one last meeting”: Opens door to pressure and intimidation
- Waiting for university “internal process”: Evidence disappears, witnesses graduate
- Talking to insurance adjusters unrepresented: Recorded statements used against you
Watch our video on common client mistakes that can ruin injury cases for more guidance.
Building a Hazing Case: Evidence Strategy for Iowa Colony Families
Digital Evidence Collection
Group Messaging Platforms
- GroupMe (most common for Greek communication)
- iMessage/SMS group texts
- WhatsApp, Signal, Telegram
- Discord servers
- Fraternity/sorority-specific apps
Proper Documentation Method
- Capture full threads with sender names and timestamps visible
- Don’t crop excessively—show authentic context
- Save in native resolution (no compression)
- Back up immediately to cloud storage and email to yourself
- For disappearing messages (Snapchat, Instagram vanish mode): screenshot instantly
Our video on using your cellphone to document a legal case provides step-by-step guidance.
Medical Documentation Protocol
- Seek immediate medical care for any injuries or intoxication
- Tell providers “I was hazed” for proper documentation
- Request copies of:
- ER reports and ambulance records
- Lab results (blood alcohol, kidney function, toxicology)
- Imaging (X-rays, CT, MRI)
- Discharge instructions
- Follow up with specialists to document ongoing effects
- Mental health evaluation for PTSD, depression, anxiety diagnosis
Institutional Records Discovery
University Records (Via Discovery)
- Prior discipline of same organization
- Campus police incident reports
- Clery Act reports showing patterns
- Title IX complaints if applicable
- Internal administrator emails about the organization
National Fraternity/Sorority Records
- Prior incident reports from this chapter
- Risk management files and training materials
- Communications between local and national
- Insurance policies and coverage information
Damage Recovery Framework for Hazing Victims
Economic Damages
Medical Expenses
- Past bills: ER, hospitalization, surgery, medications
- Future care: Ongoing therapy, psychiatric treatment, life care plans
- Catastrophic injury cases (like rhabdomyolysis) may require lifetime medical management
Lost Income & Earning Capacity
- Missed semesters and delayed graduation
- Lost scholarships (academic, athletic, Greek-based)
- Diminished future earning capacity for permanent disabilities
- Parental income loss if caregiving required
Non-Economic Damages
Physical Pain & Suffering
- Pain from injuries during hazing
- Ongoing pain from permanent damage
- Loss of physical abilities and enjoyment
Emotional Distress
- Diagnosed PTSD, depression, anxiety
- Humiliation, shame, loss of dignity
- Fear, nightmares, flashbacks
- Loss of trust in institutions
Loss of Educational Experience
- What they came to college for versus what they endured
- Relationship damage and social withdrawal
- Reputational harm if incident becomes public
Wrongful Death Damages (For Families)
- Funeral and burial costs
- Loss of financial support from deceased
- Loss of companionship, love, and guidance
- Family members’ grief and emotional suffering
- Parents’ and siblings’ mental health treatment
Why Attorney911 for Iowa Colony Hazing Cases
Our Texas Hazing Litigation Credentials
Insurance Insider Advantage
Mr. Lupe Peña spent years as an insurance defense attorney at a national firm. He knows exactly how fraternity and university insurance companies:
- Value and undervalue hazing claims
- Use delay tactics to pressure families
- Deploy independent medical exams to reduce settlements
- Fight coverage under intentional act exclusions
His background means we anticipate defense strategies before they’re deployed. Learn more about Mr. Peña’s insurance defense experience.
Complex Institutional Litigation Experience
Ralph Manginello’s involvement in BP Texas City explosion litigation demonstrates our capability against billion-dollar defendants. We’ve faced massive corporations with unlimited legal budgets and won. This experience directly applies to taking on national fraternities and university systems.
Ralph’s federal court admission (Southern District of Texas) and HCCLA membership provide both civil and criminal hazing expertise. Learn more about Ralph Manginello’s background.
Multi-Million Dollar Results
- Logging accident brain injury with vision loss: Multi-million dollar settlement
- Car accident leading to partial amputation: Multi-million dollar settlement
- Trucking wrongful death cases: Millions recovered for families
- Maritime back injury: Significant cash settlement
Spanish Language Services
Mr. Peña speaks fluent Spanish, serving Iowa Colony’s Hispanic families with cultural understanding and clear communication.
Our Investigation Methodology
Texas Hazing Intelligence Engine
We maintain proprietary databases tracking:
- 125+ IRS-registered Texas Greek organizations with EINs and addresses
- 96 Texas university campuses and their Greek ecosystems
- 1,423 Greek organizations across 25 Texas metros
- National hazing incident patterns across organizations
Expert Network Deployment
- Medical experts for injury assessment and life care planning
- Digital forensics specialists for deleted message recovery
- Greek life culture experts for coercion analysis
- Economists for damage valuation
- Psychologists for trauma assessment
Strategic Evidence Preservation
We move immediately to:
- Secure group chat evidence before deletion
- Obtain university records through public requests
- Identify all potentially liable entities
- Preserve witness testimony before coaching occurs
Immediate Steps for Iowa Colony Families
If Hazing Is Happening Right Now
- Medical Emergency: Call 911 if injured or dangerously intoxicated
- Safety First: Remove your student from dangerous situation
- Evidence Preservation: Screenshot messages, photograph injuries
- Documentation: Write detailed notes while memory is fresh
- Legal Consultation: Call 1-888-ATTY-911 within 24 hours
If You’re Investigating Past Hazing
- Gather Existing Evidence: Collect all messages, photos, medical records
- Witness Identification: List others who may have seen or experienced similar treatment
- University Inquiry: Request prior discipline records for the organization
- Legal Evaluation: Consult with attorneys to assess case viability
- Statute of Limitations Awareness: Texas generally allows 2 years from injury, but exceptions exist
Watch our video on Texas statutes of limitations for specific guidance.
If You’re a Student Currently Being Hazed
- Safety Planning: Identify exit strategies from dangerous situations
- Evidence Collection: Screenshot messages as you receive them
- Confidential Reporting: Utilize university anonymous reporting systems
- Medical Attention: Seek care immediately for any injuries
- Legal Protection: Understand your rights under Texas hazing laws
Frequently Asked Questions for Iowa Colony Families
Can we sue a Texas university for hazing?
Yes, under specific circumstances. Public universities (UH, Texas A&M, UT) have sovereign immunity limitations, but exceptions exist for gross negligence, Title IX violations, and when suing employees individually. Private universities (SMU, Baylor) have fewer immunity protections. Each case depends on specific facts about university knowledge and response.
Is hazing a felony in Texas?
It can be. Basic hazing is a Class B misdemeanor, but becomes a state jail felony if causing serious bodily injury or death. Individual officers can also face charges for failing to report known hazing.
What if it happened off-campus?
Location doesn’t eliminate liability. Universities and nationals can still be liable based on sponsorship, control, and foreseeability. The Pi Delta Psi case involved a retreat in the Pocono Mountains, and the national fraternity was criminally convicted.
How much does a hazing lawsuit cost?
We work on contingency for personal injury cases—no fee unless we win. Watch our video explaining how contingency fees work. We advance case costs and only recover them if we secure compensation for you.
Will my child’s name be public?
Most cases settle confidentially before trial. We prioritize family privacy while pursuing accountability, requesting sealed records and confidential settlement terms when possible.
What’s the first step?
Contact us for a free, confidential consultation. We’ll listen to your story, review any evidence, explain legal options, and help you decide the best path forward—with no obligation to proceed.
Contact Attorney911 Today
If hazing has affected your Iowa Colony family, you don’t have to navigate this alone. The same organizations that operate at UH, Texas A&M, UT, SMU, and Baylor have national patterns of abuse—and national resources to defend themselves. You need attorneys with equal resources and determination.
Immediate Consultation Available
- Call: 1-888-ATTY-911 (1-888-288-9911)
- Direct: (713) 528-9070
- 24/7 Availability: We understand emergencies don’t wait for business hours
- Spanish Services: Lupe Peña available at lupe@atty911.com
- Website: https://attorney911.com
What to Expect in Your Free Consultation
- We listen without judgment to understand what happened
- We review evidence you’ve preserved and explain what else matters
- We identify all potentially liable parties (individuals, chapters, nationals, universities)
- We explain legal options: criminal reporting, civil lawsuit, both, or neither
- We discuss realistic timelines and expectations
- We explain our contingency fee structure clearly
- No pressure to decide immediately—take time to consider your options
Serving Iowa Colony and All of Texas
While our offices are in Houston, Austin, and Beaumont, we serve families throughout Texas. Whether your student attends school near Iowa Colony or anywhere in Texas, we have the resources and experience to help.
The Bermudez case at UH shows that hazing continues despite policies and promises. It shows that organizations prioritize self-preservation over student safety. And it shows that holding them accountable requires determination, resources, and legal expertise.
If your family is facing this situation, call us today. Let us help you get answers, secure accountability, and prevent this from happening to another Iowa Colony family.
Plain Text Links to Key Resources
News Coverage of Leonel Bermudez / UH Pi Kappa Phi Case
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Click2Houston (KPRC 2) – “Urine was brown: Pledge sues over severe hazing at University of Houston’s shut down Pi Kappa Phi fraternity”
https://www.click2houston.com/news/local/2025/11/21/only-on-2-lawsuit-alleges-severe-hazing-at-university-of-houstons-pi-kappa-phi-chapter-fraternity/ -
ABC13 Eyewitness News (KTRK) – “Waterboarding, forced eating, physical punishment: Lawsuit alleges abuse faced by injured pledge at UH’s Pi Kappa Phi fraternity”
https://abc13.com/post/waterboarding-forced-eating-physical-punishment-lawsuit-alleges-abuse-faced-injured-pledge-uhs-pi-kappa-phi-fraternity/18186418/ -
Hoodline – “University of Houston and Pi Kappa Phi Fraternity Face $10M Lawsuit Over Alleged Hazing and Abuse”
https://hoodline.com/2025/11/university-of-houston-and-pi-kappa-phi-fraternity-face-10m-lawsuit-over-alleged-hazing-and-abuse/
Attorney911 Educational Videos
-
Using Your Cellphone to Document Evidence
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LLbpzrmogTs -
Texas Statutes of Limitations Explained
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MRHwg8tV02c -
Client Mistakes That Can Ruin Your Injury Case
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r3IYsoxOSxY -
How Contingency Fees Work
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=upcI_j6F7Nc
Attorney911 Main Website
- Contact for Free Consultation
https://attorney911.com
Legal Disclaimer
This article is provided for informational and educational purposes only. It is not legal advice and does not create an attorney-client relationship between you and The Manginello Law Firm, PLLC.
Hazing laws, university policies, and legal precedents can change. The information in this guide is current as of late 2025 but may not reflect the most recent developments. Every hazing case is unique, and outcomes depend on specific facts, evidence, applicable law, and many other factors.
If you or your child has been affected by hazing, we strongly encourage you to consult with a qualified Texas attorney who can review your specific situation, explain your legal rights, and advise you on the best course of action for your family.
The Manginello Law Firm, PLLC / Attorney911
Houston, Austin, and Beaumont, Texas
Call: 1-888-ATTY-911 (1-888-288-9911)
Direct: (713) 528-9070 | Cell: (713) 443-4781
Website: https://attorney911.com
Email: ralph@atty911.com | lupe@atty911.com (Spanish services)